Introduction
In this research paper I will critically analyze the Burman work and how it has contributed towards the Development psychology. I will discuss how Burman has explained the role of a mother in bringing up the children and how the child is nurtured towards becoming a responsible person in the nation building.
The mother according to Burman and progressive therapy, she regards them as a middleclass mother. Burman (1994) states that, “Potential research intervention, especially embark on psychological training and lies primarily in the political commitment rather than being ensured by any technical or methodological device”.
Burman (1994) highlights that “the knowledge produced by developmental psychology accounts itself contributes to the way a mother complements and completes her infants’ action, since she is exhorted to orient her child rearing it”.
Blackman (2005) asserts that “Pets often look like their owners and vice versa” therefore, there is connectedness of human with their children also. Hence, this study clearly indicates that mothers plays a very fundamental role in the development of their children. In my analysis I will dwell upon the role a mother plays in the psychological development of the child.
The research will indicate why and how developmental psychology can be applied by educator. We have intimated the basic importance and power of the discipline of developmental psychology. This research also gives a platform and material to engage in practical experiences with the learners. “The human infant is born social in the sense that the development will depend from the beginning upon patterns of interaction with the elders…interaction does begin at birth but …infants only become individual patterns gradually, as a direct result of those interactions” (Kaye 1982, 29).
Developmental psychology
According to Riggs (2004), developmental psychology has resulted to an increase in awareness of the cultural significance of human action. It is the scientific study of changes related to human life span. This is a discipline of scientific inquiry. It recognizes all societies and cultures of human, in the process of changing or constantly growing. It identifies psychological, biological, and social aspects that do interact to influence the process of human life-span (Peterson, 1996). This was an expansion of focus towards the study of physical, cognitive, intellectual, motor, emotional, moral, social changes that occur in the entire life span. There before it only focused towards maturation of the child and the development only.
This is part of greater domain of psychology and plays foundation part of psychology. It enables us to explain the changes in psychology both social and cognitive. Those changes reflect how children and adults learn, perceive, understand, recall, and process the whole aspects of life in the world. The changes also assist as in explaining how people engage with their surrounding socially, how identities are formed, personalities, and psychopathologies. It is connected to many other psychology sub-disciplines and contributes to those disciplines (Riegel 1973). Cognitive developmental psychology, involves many theories of learning, which includes memory, language acquisition, and intelligence. Developmental psychology proves to be a very powerful tool when it comes to conceptualizing and understanding personality and psychopathology of an individual.
It plays a huge role in our day-to-day life and goes behold strict confines of psychology itself (Burman 1994, 2). It plays a great role and as a source of institutional knowledge about individuals across all ages. Through developmental psychology, we are able to decide when the pre-school are ready for school, when the child should fail a standard, which behavior is problematic or not for a particular age. Developmental psychology also acts as an instrument intelligence and psychometric assessment tests. We are also able to understand the meaning of a child, adult, an infant father and mother. Developmental psychology influences formal, institutional, and less formal social understanding and values. For instance, developmental psychology influences government decisions on schooling or issues about health policies.
“More than any other variety of psychology, it have a powerful impact on our everyday lives and ways of thinking about us. Its effects are so great that they are often almost imperceptible, taken-for-granted features about our expectations of others, parents, families’ and children”. (Burman, 1994: 2).
In adult development, Burman’s comments are applicable by first considering the number of spheres of human development. Those spheres include physical development, cognitive development and psychosocial development. In adult education, the study of developmental psychology is fundamental. The changes in life arise from a mixture of biological, social, historical, psychological, and evolutional influences and timing in a live of an individual (Hoyer & Roodin 2003). In developmental psychology, we understand that those spheres are inter-twined and are dependent upon each other. For example, we understand that a child with a hearing problem will also be at risk of delayed language (Papalia, Olds and Feldman 1998).
In adult development, developmental psychology is concerned in not only describing the psychological change characteristics only but also focuses to explain internal working and the principles underpinning the changes. All those factors are understood by use of the models, which are going to be discussed in this paper. Developmental models sometimes need computations, but it is not mandatory that the computation should be there. The process taking place accounts for the model, and this is usually done in reference to the changes of the behavior and changes in the brain.
In developmental psychology, we understand that development as occurring in three domains. The domains are cognitive, physical, and psychosocial (Newman and Newman 2009). The cognitive domain involves all the mental abilities and activities and the organization of thoughts. This also includes changes in perception, reasoning, creativity, language, and memory (Smith and Pourchot 1998). Physical domain refers to the physical characteristics, which involves height, weight, size, and shape. There also change in brain structure, sensory capacities, and motor skills. Motor skills include talking, walking, and writing. The psychosocial domain refers to the social skills and characters of the personality. The interpersonal skills are also involved and individual unique way, of responding and behaving towards social circumstances (Henriques, et al 1998).
Understanding all those facets of life will assist adult educator to deal with the development of the learners. It is concerned on how our mental abilities changes with learning and through maturation. This cognitive development also refers to the process of knowing which include intelligence, memory, language, perception, attention, and problem solving (Hook et al 2004).
In adult development, three domains of development must be considered. Those domains are physical, cognitive, and psychosocial. Psychoanalytical approaches to development and personality focus on the intra-psychic dynamics of an individual. This study prioritizes the role of the unconscious and the nature of the childhood events to define the personality structure of the individual adult personality.
The study exposes where things can go wrong in development. In adult development, the study of developmental psychology expresses how mental abilities change with learning and maturation. This is the cognitive development. The focus on cognitive development is on how we receive information rather than on what is known. Cognitive development is concerned on how we process information at different stages during the individual’s life.
The study of psychosocial psychology in developmental psychology identifies a person’s identity and their moral, sexual, psychosocial growth in a particular cultural context. This refers to the way individual relate with others and the entire interpersonal sphere. This also includes the questions of emotional development and this assist an adult educator to understand the qualities that make individuals.
In adult education we study the psychological changes, perception changes and emotional changes that take place in a human being life span (Labouvie, 1980). The study includes the adult and aging. The field examines the changes taking place in range topics, which include motor skills, problem solving, conceptual understanding, and moral understanding. The issues such as the extent to which development take place through the accumulation of knowledge versus stage development are included (Glaser, 1984).
In understanding psychology in adult development there are issues that need to be considered. One of the foremost is to ask ourselves is whether genetics or environment influence development. The second question is whether development happens in stages, or it happens slowly and smoothly. Lastly, the question is whether early experiences in childhood have the greatest impact on the improvement or are later proceedings equally important. There are two perspectives that we consider the adult development.
Nature and Nurture
In early psychology, many philosophers such as Plato and Descartes have supported the idea that some ideas are inborn while others believe that at birth the mind of a child is blank. John Locke argues that mind is blank at birth, which means that it is a tabula rasa. Currently, the study of human development argues that there is an interaction between both views (Riegel, 1973). That is most psychologist believes that human development is as a result of interaction between biological and environmental factors. For example, in this field we believes that some aspects of development are biological such as puberty. However, during the early stages environment can affect puberty through altering factors such as diet and nutrition.
Early experience vs. later experience
Another important point to consider in developmental psychology involves the relationship between early experience and those that happen later in life. The concern is whether we are affected by the events occurring during childhood or those that happen later in life. In developmental psychology the focus is upon events that occur in early childhood. The theory indicates that child’s personality is established completely at the age of five years. If this is indeed the case, those who experienced childhood abuse or experienced deprived might not develop or adjust normally. However, the influence of childhood experiences does not necessarily dominate the behavior throughout their life. In many cases, those who were less perfect during childhood go on to develop into well-adjusted adults.
Continuity vs. Discontinuity
Continuity is another important issue in developmental psychology. The developmental psychologists ask themselves whether any change occurs smoothly over time or changes are a series of predetermined steps. Some theories of development indicate that changes are a matter of quantity and children will demonstrate their skills as they grow up. Other theories indicate that there is a series of sequential stages that the skills emerge at a particular time of development. Most developmental psychological theories will fall under three broad categories. They are listed below.
Psychoanalytic theories
According to Craib (2001), this theory is influenced by Sigmund Freud work, which indicates the importance of the unconscious mind and childhood experience. Freud contributed developmental theory proposal that development occurs in a series of psychosexual stages. Freud ideas were expanded by a stage theory of psychosocial development. This theory focused on the arising conflict at different stages of development and described throughout the lifespan.
Learning theory focuses on how the environment affects the behavior. This is demonstrated in those processes, which include classical conditioning, social learning, and operant conditioning. In each of those processes, the behavior is shaped by the individual interaction with the environment.
Cognitive theory on the other hand focuses on the mental processes, abilities, and skills. The focus is on how development occurs. Piaget theory of cognitive development is an example of cognitive theory.
Abnormal Behavior vs. Individual Differences
One of the biggest concerns in this theory is whether there is any deficit behavior in development of an individual. It offers guidelines for the ages where certain skills and abilities should emerge. This also indicates when the child slightly falls behind the norm. Currently, the focus is now more on individual differences, as opposed to earlier focus of deficit behavior. Developmental theories describe the deficit in behavior as opposed to the traditional theories which focused upon abnormal behavior. The learning theories usually rely more on uniqueness of environment impact on an individual. Hence, the individual differences are regarded as an important component of the theories.
Adult educator, adult learning training, and education
Adult development qualities and characteristics are increasing interest to developmental psychologist. Adult educators have focused their efforts towards adults. This is as a result of increased numbers of adults who are going back to school to continue with their education and training. It has now become necessary to integrate and focus towards developmental psychologist and more so focusing not only to children but also to the entire human life span. The healthy living lately has been the interest of many and demands for occupation have also increased. This standpoint together with the earlier retirement and more time available for leisure have made many adults going back to school. This has been done in both formal settings and also in other variety alternative. Through developmental psychology, adult educators have understood the most effective ways to influence knowledge and provide adult learners with the right instructions. The theory assist the educator to understand their learners needs, abilities and interest.
As an educator, we benefit from the understanding of the psychology of learning and development. Educators are qualified to provide the required information to the adult learners. This is usually applied in the educational context. Adult education is regarded as developmental enterprise where it promotes the development of adults in all domains. These domains are intellectual, cognitive, emotional, and social. Although as an educator, one may not be completely versed in developmental principles, but basic knowledge of developmental psychology will promote the development.
According to Tennant and Pogson (1995), intellectual and social development will be in one domain. While personality and social development will be the second domain. Adult social development is emphasized to adult education rather than the personality development. However, the importance of a broader understanding of the impact education to the adults should be emphasized. According to Tennant and Pogson (1995), there are two descriptive model that should be used when teaching the adults. Those models are the stability model and decrement model.
The stability model focuses on the adult recognition and assumes that recognition remain the same after the individual reaches maturity. The decrement model actually assumes that there is a gradual decrease in the ability of an individual to utilize and organize information. This happens due to the biological weakening of the cognitive system, which happen with age. The theory assists the educator to understand that the peak intellectual occurs in early 30s and early 20s.
Baltes (1987) highlights that the life span developmental perspective has a very big influence, and this led to the development of an alternative model on the cognitive aging. The alternative model indicates that with age the cognitive ability increase with age. This argument is based in the fact that adults are faced with socially determined problems, which need solving. Those situations are at the workplace, at home, in the community and in the family. All those areas act as a good platform to increase and improve intellectual and cognitive abilities. Adult educator will always modify their perspective in regards to their intellectual ability. For example, those working from the Piaget cognitive developmental perspective need to modify. Piaget argued that development of intellect could reach its zenith when there is the attainment of formal operations. Hence, the assumption that there was no further development after the individual reached late adolescence.
When formal operation was regarded, it considered one dimension of adult thinking. This is scientific and logical-mathematical reasoning. As an adult educator, one knows that adult life has nothing to do with formal logical or mathematical reasoning. But the problems and issues are within interpersonal and social domains. In the practice of adult learning, the so-called post- formal models have been proposed. Those models welcome the model of real-life experience when dealing with problem solving.
The role of self in learning
Tennant and Pogson (1995) observes that the focus in adult education should be towards personality and social development in adulthood rather than primarily on cognitive development of adults. Attention should be devoted to those theories and theorist concerned with adult learning. The theories and ideas must be relevant to the adult educators for they will agree to the development of social roles and personality. Those would have their origin in social practices rather than innate processes in psychology. The focus of adult education should be streamlined towards shaping and developing a person in various ways (Kegan, 1982).
Adults demonstrate modules of learning that tells the educator they have understood and improved their intellectual and cognitive abilities. This has usually taken place despite that there is no psychological research, which can find quantitative evidence, as opposed to qualitative discrepancy found in learning style (Baumeister, 1999).
Adult educators should not assume that they know more than the adult learners do. They should not assume the role of a teacher who knows everything, but they should act as a facilitator. They should facilitate rather than the one who imparts facts and knowledge to passive adult learner. Malcolm (1984) regarded this as andragogy. The view of active teacher and passive learner has been overtaken by time and replaced by constructivism and social-constructivism. This should bring rise to a common ground between educational psychologist and the adult educators. Adult educators focus on phenomenological experience of learners individually. While psychologist are more concerned with learners in a group.
The attitude of not studying minority group should not be adopted as there have been the case. Adult educators should work together with educational psychologists to benefit from one another (Tennent and Pogson 1995). Adult educators should be concerned about acknowledging the learners experience. They should also establish the relationship between the adult learner and adult teacher. Thirdly, the adult teacher should promote the autonomy of the adult learner and always ensure that the adult learner has the self-direction. Adult teacher should always understand that the learner is not a tabula rasa given that there is an impact of the social environment on that individual. When teaching adult learners there are important questions, one ought to ask, among this question are what are the most relevant life experience in the learning situation. The second one is how does the prior knowledge of the adult learner affect their current learning experience. Thirdly, is how the adult teacher can maximize and capitalize the relevant experience given the instructions conducted (Taylor, 1992).
The relationship between the adult learner and the adult teacher should always be the key in the instructional situation. This is because the ability of the adult teacher to motivate the adult learners can only be established through mutual trust. This is the situation when the teacher will teach, and the student will learn. According to Pintrich & DeGroot (1990), the issue of autonomy and self-direction should always be emphasized to achieve a desirable level of motivation. All these can be fostered through successful teaching, which involves all the component of adult education requirement (Cronbach & Snow, 1977).
Conclusion
In conclusion, learning theory focuses on how the environment affects the behavior. This is demonstrated in those processes, which include classical conditioning, social learning, and operant conditioning. In each of those processes, the behavior is shaped by the individual interaction with the environment. Developmental psychology is connected to many other psychology sub-disciplines and contributes to those disciplines. Cognitive developmental psychology, involves many theories of learning, which includes memory, language acquisition, and intelligence. Developmental psychology proves to be a very powerful tool when it comes to conceptualizing and understanding personality and psychopathology of an individual.
Adult learner and the adult teacher should always be the key in the instructional situation. This is because the ability of the adult teacher to motivate the adult learners can only be established through mutual trust. The focus in adult education should be towards personality and social development in adulthood rather than primarily on cognitive development of adults. Attention should be devoted to those theories and theorist concerned with adult learning. The theories and ideas must be relevant to the adult educators for they will agree to the development of social roles and personality.
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