Literature Review
Trends in Adolescent Substance Use
Introduction
Substance use for adolescents is a problem that majority of governments of the world are struggling to manage. Adolescents form an important part of a country’s future yet substance abuse are almost defining their identity in the society. Experiential researches have indicated that some adolescent as young as the ages of 7 – 12 are already experimenting on drugs available within their reach. Inhaling substances like glues, kitchen fumes from household cleaners among other light object like pens are a common practice in adolescents. It is important that parents, family and other stakeholders like the social department are awake to manage the effects of the little substance exposure among adolescent before progression to other hard drugs like marijuana. It is equally necessary that knowledge and information is built on the emerging new tends in the marketing platform to prevent negative influence to early exposure to substance use. This literature review discusses aspects of the adolescent substance encounter and the challenges experienced by parents in managing the adolescent drug abuse situations within the society.
Perceptions of Risk Situations
The general perception of adolescent about substance influences their susceptibility to drug and substance abuse. Positive youth guidance and development sessions is one of the surest model of reducing or eliminating potential risks to the first exposure of substance use (Ciocanel, Power, Eriksen, & Gillings, 2017). The perception of the risk associated with substance use carries a level of importance in the determinations of whether an adolescent is involved in substance abuse or not (Ciocanel et al., 2017). Majority of adolescents who are exposed to information on the risks associated with substance use are likely to delay exposure to substance use compared to those with low or no information disclosures (Zhai, Yip, Steinberg, Wampler, Hoff, Krishnan-Sarin, & Potenza, 2017). Similarly, Chapman and Rokutani (2005) proposes that various adolescent ages should be exposed to knowledge about the risk associated with substance abuse to ensure a delayed or zero exposure to substance use. Therefore, it becomes imperative for public health providers and other social organizations to offer accurate, credible, and age-appropriate packaged information to the young people. Zhai et al. (2017) concur to the aspect of dissemination of risk to harm packaging of information, but suggest the adjustment to the emerging trends with regard to delivery channels, citing the growing adjustment of content relevant to the young adolescents and middle age teens due to their technological biases.
Independence from Parents
Adolescents struggles for a level of independence from the parents and they gain popularity and recognition within their peers. While some exposure to substance abuse in adolescent has been attributed to parental influences, Mayberry, Espelage, and Koenig (2009) are among other social and psychological researchers have elucidated that majority of parent addicts tend to protect their adolescents from substance use. The fact that adolescents struggle for independence from parents improves their susceptibility to abusing drugs and substance (Mayberry, Espelage, & Koenig, 2009). However, Mayberry, Espelage, & Koenig (2009) further explains that such quest for freedom when viewed as a developmental trend in adolescent, should be allowed within guided parameters that ensure responsible behavioral approaches are developed so as to protect on juvenile delinquent practices. Several trends in the society among adolescents have been defined by epidemiological studies as having specific origins from racial – ethnocultural or behavioral contexts of the society they are brought up (Gil, Wagner, & Tubman, 2004). This argument brings a new paradigm in substance use among adolescent given that some adolescent with the potential of substance use have origins pointed to their cultural practices and beliefs. The obligations of parents in managing the impacts of these trends suffer limitations and capacity issues. Gil, Wagner, and Tubman (2004) agree that parental failures have been the basis of such improved substance use among adolescent children.
Acceptance and Popularity among Peers
Acceptability among adolescent peer groups according to Johnston, O’Malley, Bachman, and Schulenberg (2012) is defined by the level of risk taking abilities one is capable of undertaking. Several empirical types of research have attributed this fact to the longevity of the developmental period between young adolescents and the puberty stages with regards to decision making and capability progress. Social and psychological scientists believe that the propensity to exploit newer and potentially unsafe scenarios among young people, coincides with their objective to create an independent world for them. Every young person seeks to create their own rules and an atmosphere they have absolute control over. This creates a level of freedom that leads to experimental life that in most cases involves trying on potentially dangerous substances.
Conversely, adolescents tend to believe more in decisions of their peers compared to those from their parents, relatives, or teachers and other social service providers, including like religious or opinion leaders (Boeri, Gardner, Gerken, Ross, & Wheeler, 2016). Therefore, risk-taking becomes a part of the peer-to-peer engagement with higher risk takers viewed like heroes and heroines among their peers. The influence of music and culture among the adolescents is a matter that requires closer observations. The hip-hop music culture in the United States is for instance, developed to promote public use of drugs and other socially unacceptable behaviors (Substance, 2016). An adolescent who prefers the hip-hop genre or music tends to embrace such cultures and practices displayed in the music videos and start harboring early encounter with substance in the quest to conform to the practices of the genre. Though parents have a responsibility to closely monitor the genre of music loved by the adolescents, that fact has often escaped their attention. It is important that parent understand the nature of music and the practice within such cultures in order to provide strategic and timely advice to adolescents.
Adolescents who experimenting on alcohol for the first time carry effects that involve impulsive behavioral aspects. The influence of experimenting with alcohol and other substance is controlled from the perceptions of the adolescent. Even though peer groups play a role to influence positively or negatively behavior approaches, perceptions play a major role in the accelerating the preliminary exposure to substance use. Verhoef et al. (2014) assert that adolescents who have positive expectations about alcohol or hold the viewpoint that alcohol is more pleasurable are likely to engage in alcohol or substance abuse compared to the those holding opposing reservations.
The role of peers, therefore, acts as a mere catalyst to the principal and foundation of ideologies harbored within such adolescents. The current concern is the responsibility of building such foundations to ensure that the quality of thought and positive decision making is developed among adolescent to avoid early exposure to substance use. Whereas it may be difficult to apportion responsibility for effective decision-making systems within adolescents, of essence is the fact that all social formations from family to religious leaders, government departments to social or psychological professionals are accountable to adolescent’s degrading behavioral tenets. However, the decision to develop stronger foundations, opinions, and ideologies are majority influenced by the intrinsic or extrinsic values under the control of the same adolescent (Johnston et al., 2012). Therefore, parents and family relations play a pivotal role in developing intrinsic and extrinsic values that guide effective decision processes among the adolescents.
The variances in the brain functionality of the adolescent similarly explains their susceptibility to consume higher capacities of substances compared to the adult counterparts (Verhoef et al., 2014). Majority of adolescent have the capacity to drink larger quantities of alcohol compared to adults given the fact that the incidental effects are not yet exposed or understood to significant levels. The consequential effects of substance use, including drowsiness, poor coordination among other effects are occasionally viewed as the ultimate price to maturity and often serve as an influencer to the second exposure to substance. Whereas parents continue to view the adolescents through the lenses of being children, majority of such activities tend to bypass their attention. Adolescent who experiment stagers walking poses higher chances of substance testing. These situations increase the potential for substance abuse in adolescents, leading to more escalated situations of alcohol consumption.
Adolescent perception of drinking has in most cases taken a positive side like the feeling of conforming while interacting to adults or a feeling of independence when taking a drink out of choice and without instructions from adults, parents, or social opinion leaders. This according to Collins et al. (2016) these facts explain the increased rates of binge drinking within several teens or young adults. Researchers place alcohol as the ideal drink of choice for the majority of adolescents. Many young adolescents have their first exposure to alcohol in tender stages, making alcohol among the leading health problems that require a strategic refocus. Despite the several deaths reported in various demographic areas, the use alcohol is a leading major cause of homicides, suicide, and fatal motor vehicle accidents among adolescents within the United States.
Technological Trends in Substance Abuse
The adolescents in the post-millennium ages experience differentiated trends in the marketing by companies dealing with products like alcohol and cigarettes. Such marketing principles and products rebranding strategies employed by such companies increase the temptations to substance use compared to the previous categorizations of youths. Technology and technological advancements within the post-millennium ages carry a great influence in shaping lifestyle behavior situations among the adolescents (Yach, 2014). Literature and professional narratives from various health and behavioral experts have pointed a finger to the innovative media and advertisements systems that increase the temptations in the first exposure to substance abuse among adolescents (Yach, 2014). Even though other researchers have confirmed the argument that modern media and changes in electronic advertisements have improved products persuasion models , the general opinion is that modern media not only facilitate the outreach of products to adolescent market, but also points out aspects of products differentiations in the market. This implies that the community around the adolescent have the empirical roles to provide guidance and advice to the adolescent on such products as advertised., Given that the maturation of the adolescent brain differs from one individual to another with various systemic variances like delay in perceptions and complex cognitive abilities, Ciocanel et al. (2017) assert that interpretations of media content, especially by adult parents or guardians, plays an important part in providing the correct interpretation to the developing adolescents mind.
Globalization viewed through the use of internet, and other platforms of interactions like social media equally influences potential harmful trends of substance use to the adolescent youth. Majority of the technological innovations are affecting adolescents on the global platform. However, Yach (2014) express a contrary opinion attributing the impacts and intensity of substance abuse to the economic development of countries and the aspects of product competition in the market. For instance, the electronic cigarette is likely to be abused by adolescent given the technological and innovative approach used to package it compared to the ordinary tar/tobacco cigarette (Gartner, 2014). Given that majority of parents are yet to adequately engage and interact with such technological innovations regarding products like electronic cigarettes, challenges of guidance and information sharing about the harm to the young people are always lacking.
The Common Substance Used by Adolescents
Majority of adolescents abuse drugs that are readily found or easily peddled around them. Alcohol and tobacco are the most commonly used substances among the young people. Alcohol and tobacco rate high among adolescent since they are readily accessible through either parents or stores or within the adolescent networks. However, recent surveys have indicated that marijuana is gaining popularity amongst the young adolescent Americans. According to Watkins (2016) young adolescents have tended to favor inhalants substances within their immediate reach. Inhalants such as fumes from household cleaners or glues are popular among younger adolescent while the senior teens have preferences on synthetic marijuana-like Spice or K2. Accordingly, older teens have developed a preference for prescription medicine such as opioid pain relievers – Vicodin among another stimulant such as Adderall (Johnston, O’Malley, Miech, Bachman, & Schulenberg, 2014). Inhalants and stimulants are common among adolescent substance abusers with several surveys adding their weight to these facts. The addiction levels of adolescents have been on the increase due to the repeated use of the over the counter and subscription drugs. Even though the vulnerability of the young people to the substance abused may differ from one adolescent to another, Johnston, et al. (2014) explains that genetics and environmental influences can work to promote the building of strong psychosocial development and resilience so as to counter the severe risk factors involved. Parents and family have an important role in monitoring the steps of adolescents with problems of substance abuse and provide support to such adolescent rather than lash out at them as has often been the practice.
Holding Positive Perceptions to Negative Substance
Thousands of adolescents hold various views to technologically branded substances that carries a higher potential for addiction. Research has shown that emerging technological innovations in the consumption methods for alcohol, marijuana, and cigarettes seem to find higher acceptance levels among adolescent compared to other population demography. Innovations such as vapor pens are more common in young people where they find acceptance compared to the other older populations. The challenges, therefore, relate to parents who have difficulties understanding newer technological trends leading to an absence of knowledge and information base that may provide strategic advice to the adolescents. Innovations such as Stainless Bud Vaporizers used in the consumption of marijuana is a favorite among young people. The packaging of information equally has been slightly indented towards adolescents with the majority of the young people holding the perception that the consumption of marijuana once in a month has no negative effects, especially using modern equipment like vaporizers (Gartner, 2014). Even though the uptake of marijuana is increasing among young people in the US, experts have attributed such increase to educations and lifestyles and the campaign on its medicinal values. This technology trends equally brings into play a new paradigm that accelerates substance consumption among adolescent in the US. Kassaye, Sherief, Fissehaye, and Teklu (2017) assert that parents should endeavor to visit institutions like the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) to access important information from the U.S. National Library of Medicine on the trends in order to improve their preparedness to manage issues of adolescent substance use.
Genetic Intolerance to Substance abuse
Genetic tolerance or intolerances to alcohol have the influence to both psychological and behavioral aspects of an adolescent. Alcoholic parents or families carry higher possibilities of influencing adolescent compared to an ordinary adolescent who meets up drunkards out of their residents. Zhai et al. (2017) concur with this argument asserting that children born of alcoholics have a higher probability of becoming alcoholic themselves compared to children with no alcoholic relations. The challenge of genetics and genetic formations for alcoholics, and the high probability of adolescent addiction is an aspect that requires pragmatic medical responses, Research has indicated that children of alcoholics (COA) have almost between 5 – 7 chances of becoming alcoholic due to brain functionality. However, other indications have been made to the effect that COA has the ability to delay encounter to substance use. It is important that institutions with empirical data provided them to paint the correct picture with regards to substance abuse among adolescent (Ammerman, Ryan, & Adelman, 2015).
Genetics and hereditary aspects in substance use form a complicated part of adolescent substance use discussion, especially with regards to alcohol and marijuana. Similarly, other negative behavioral aspects like anti-social behaviors, rebelliousness, and a host of other vices are inevitable have been associated by adolescent substance use. Even though the factors that lead to alcoholism for alcoholic families have been annotated to be linked to drinking to alleviate depression, or escape other responsibilities, it is not well established whether the adolescent or COA drink for similar purposes given the tenderness of age and absence of responsibilities.
Developing a Sense of Autonomy and Independence
Every aspect of life entertains a level or restriction presented through various laws, policies or societal norms which vary from different sociocultural beliefs and practices. Adolescents have challenges with rendering respect to authorities or observing restriction imposed in life through various outfits in the society. Though the rights to autonomy has been viewed as a provision of the law, majority of religious and social institutions are of the view that no individual can be guaranteed absolute autonomy except one that expresses reservations to certain behavioral aspects or conducts among other social considerations. Adolescents autonomy is the negative tool of trade that bring to play aspects of substance use among other vices. The autonomy to make a decision regarding their interaction is a phenomenon that majority of adolescent seeks and guards accurately. Several youths have had their first encounter of substance abuse in youth parties and sleepovers, which comes as a result of the decision on autonomy and independence. More importantly is the fact that establishing such independence leads to the development of a personal identity and self-image when well managed but equally stands out as a recipe for destructive activity that destroys the adolescent through early exposure to the substance use. Majority of parents face challenges in managing the autonomy issues of their adolescent children leading to constant quarrels and disagreements. However, it is important for the parents to remain upbeat about their adolescents and understand all that goes around them in order to offer support when needed.
The experimental models define the youthful life of adolescent as one that is embroiled in seeking fun and adventure in almost everything they do. Given the limitations of parental presence, advice, and limitations, the life of adolescents is controlled by their desires to make merry and have fun. Whereas seeking fun and adventure is part of the socialization process that prepares the adolescent to face the dynamic changes within the peers, it is important that such independence is managed with responsibility and under strict surveillance places of authorities.
Rebellion amongst adolescent is another challenge several parents, social institution, and federal organizations continue to struggle with. The physical and psychological developmental occurrence among the adolescent is an activity that causes several confusing situations to the youth. Similarly, the adolescent quest for recognition and independence is an activity that requires rationalization. It is obvious that majority of the experimental living for adolescent increases the exposure to substance abuse. Therefore, the society should plays a pivotal role in guiding adolescents who should be perceived as immediate leaders amongst themselves and expected to fit in the shoes of the professional networks in the society,
Conclusion
Adolescent experiences emotional and psychological challenges through the developmental stages of childhood, youth, and adulthood. Though societal formations view the adolescent from the lenses of early maturity, the reality is that the majority of the adolescents are still children, young and requiring guidance. Parents and family, including the state’s social departments, have a responsibility to play in every adolescent who exposes himself or herself to the risk of substance use. The family has a responsibility of mentorship to ensure value-based systems are inculcated into the decision-making process of the adolescents with regards to their private time and interactions. It is important that sectors of the society that have previously abdicated their roles to reinstate their responsibility to the adolescent so as to remodel and restore their lives. Accordingly, government social institutions have a responsibility to ensure adolescents protection mechanisms are well interfaced within adolescent movements through the campaign for safe practices and effective decision-making.
Adolescents should be empowered to hold views that promote their positive developments while managing the negative situations brought about by their faulty decision making and peer pressure. The technological trends are taking over the responsibility of family in handling mentorship scenarios to the adolescents. Given that the mind of the adolescent continues to undergo systemic variations and growth, it is important that it is filled with reasonable content that can guide it into effective decision-making processes. Government social departments and experts should continue creating a knowledge exchange forum and decision-making training to equip the adolescent with the requisite capabilities for effective decision making. For instance, the capability to manage the pressures that emanate from peers and socially delinquent grouping within the society is critical to adolescent lives.
References
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