Introduction
The current discussion focuses on the prevalence of the glass ceiling in the UAE and strategies that Emirati firms need to implement to increase Emirati women’s presence in high-level managerial positions. The topic is essential to address the issues that have persisted for a very long time in the country. Glass ceiling in male-dominated cultures, such as the UAE, is a common and severe problem that needs to be addressed to increase the participation of women in the workplace and to break the gender inequality challenge. The topic is thought-provoking on a personal level because of the need to understand what other researchers suggest regarding the gendered problem. The individual perception about the issue is that the country still lags in terms of efforts to deal with the glass ceiling. However, it is necessary to establish the actual extent of both research and empirical evidence. Therefore, the review will help to determine the scope of the issue and current efforts to address it.
Review of the Literature
Research in the area of women’s employment in the Arab world has been increasing. However, it is still limited in terms of exploring the issue of women in leadership and managerial positions. The focus on employment and career among women is a relatively new area of research interest in the UAE. Regardless, current research shows that many authors are currently intrigued by the topic, while the literature on this issue is still growing. Afiouni (2014) and Kassem (2012) are among the researchers that have explored the subject to show the level of progress available in employment and career development among women in the region. Their studies focused on the women’s professions in the Arab world to provide a detailed understanding of influences at the organizational level, which affects their career choices and the potential to pursue leadership positions in the workplace. They focused on the social, cultural, and organizational perspectives on women’s careers in the Arab World, including the UAE.
Research on Women Leadership in the UAE
Women and leadership remain a critical area of study when seeking to understand attempts to break the glass ceiling in the UAE. Historically, the male-dominated culture has hindered women from assessing high positions in organizations, even after they pursue a career and complete successfully. The United Arab Emirates (UAE) is one of the areas that has witnessed an increase in research in this area to understand current efforts and achievements (Moore, 2012; Kemp, Madsen, & El-Saidi, 2013). Through qualitative approaches, experiences, lifetime developments, and perspectives of women leaders in various sectors, researchers identify the current state of the glass ceiling and efforts to address the problem to empower more women to assume managerial positions. The research indicates that women have not entirely been represented in administrative positions, but the country has experienced a growing trend that might continue to improve in the future. However, researchers also focus on the barriers that remain in this area, including work-life demands.
Women have penetrated in various areas of the UAE economy. Research reveals that women have been increasing their educational prospects to improve their career outcomes. They are pursuing careers in education, government, and industry. Besides, women are developing their leadership prospects in business. Female business leadership in the UAE is one of the areas that research focused on. In the region, the number of women leaders in business has been increasing. The Dubai Women Establishment (2011) reveals the current improvement in the area of women’s leadership in business. The changes have been achieved due to improved access to education for female students in the UAE society. The improvement has developed qualified, competent, and confident females in the country. The enlightened political leadership in the country has encouraged the empowerment of women in all sectors, but mostly in the public sector (Kemp, Madsen, & El-Saidi, 2013). The country has also experienced cultural changes that allow more women in the workplace and family support for their education and careers.
Culture and social factors have traditionally affected the opportunities of women in the workplace, including their chances to become managers and leaders. Researchers focus on traditional beliefs and values that have led to inequality between women and men. Masculine societies have a long history of inequality between males and females. Due to cultural and social beliefs, inequality has a direct impact on workplace dynamics that segregates males and females. Many workplaces become accustomed to the idea than men are better at work than women. They believe that men become better leaders than females, primarily because they are not distracted by other responsibilities, such as family (Kassem, 2012). According to the study, women who would become leaders in the UAE had to work harder than men to prove their ability to lead and generate results. The glass ceiling has a long history in the country, just like in other Arab regions where men are the source of power and authority.
However, some countries have made considerable progress in reducing the glass ceiling and bridging the gap between males and females in the workplace and leadership. They have made progress in helping Arab women to improve their career outcomes. Although actual progress is yet to be realized, Karam and Afiouni (2014) indicate that significant progress has been achieved. Countries are addressing some barriers to career advancement in the UAE. Some of the traditional barriers that have to be addressed include family responsibilities and long maternity leaves. Women tend to have greater responsibilities for their families that men, which might deny them the opportunity to access education and build a career. It might be worse for those seeking leadership positions. However, women are proving themselves more in the workplace in the UAE and other Arab countries. They have ventured into business and established themselves as efficient employees and even leaders. The situation has improved for women, making critical steps in dealing with the glass ceiling.
The idea that women are only successful in caring for their families has been countered by the progress made by women, such as achieving considerable success in business and employment. Karam and Afiouni (2014) conducted a study that summarized various elements of Arab women’s situation in their career life. They concentrated on their current participation in the workplace. At the macro level, contextual factors were investigated, including socioeconomic and demographic elements that affect their participation. The reality that the UAE is patriarchal and mainly Muslim has derailed the efforts of Arab women to have an actual representation in the workplace. However, legal and governmental programs have a direct impact on the employment of women in the country and their chances of gaining leadership roles. Women’s movements, personal initiatives, and government programs have been instrumental in improving the place of women in the workplace.
Historical Development
Research data reveals the statistics of women represented in the workforce in the UAE. As of 2005, the UAE Businesswomen Council discovered that about 40% of women were working in the public sector, 18% in the private industry, 29% as representatives of different organizations, and 7.6% were self-employed. In business, 7.3% of women worked in joint ventures, while 6% were doing business (Karam & Afiouni, 2014). Evidence from the data shows that women preferred working in the public sector because of considerations, such as flexible working arrangements, the stability of jobs, and extended holiday periods. In 2007, the UAE Ministry of State and Federal National Council Affairs revealed that women made up more than 40% of the entire workforce in education, at least 35% in the health sector, and about 20% in social work. However, the private sector remains male-dominated, with very few women working in leadership positions. The trend indicates the need to empower more women to work in the private sector managerial positions.
The UAE has also achieved positive development in terms of leadership positions in the workplace, especially in business. However, while significant strides are evident in the public sector, similar or even better achievements are necessary for the private sector. Leadership roles for women in the private sector are necessary. A recent non-scholarly article revealed the need for critical changes to improve female leadership in private sector companies. The UAE Female Leadership article revealed that in the UAE, only 0.99% of the top-level positions are female (Kapur, 2012). Although the study was not a peer-reviewed journal article, it provides data that should be considered, concerning the prevalence of women in leadership roles in the private sector. The Grant Thornton International (2012) also provided data to show the relatively few leadership positions in the country assumed by females. Although 15% is more significant than 0.99%, the number is still low. Definitional differences exist in the figures revealed in the two articles, but the reality is that they show the need for change to address the glass ceiling (Kemp, Madsen, & El-Saidi, 2013). The data further reveal that women remain under-represented in the private sector workplaces.
Current Attempts to Break the Glass Ceiling
The increasing number of women in the Emirate workforce indicates that the country has made positive strides in dealing with the glass ceiling. Emirati women are increasingly being represented in various organizational settings and workplaces (Samier, 2015). However, it is crucial to create more initiatives and implement additional programs to increase the number of women in the Emirati workforce. Women are needed in leadership roles because they have considerable capabilities and qualifications, just like men.
Current efforts indicate that the UAE is one of the leading nations implementing significant attempts to break the glass ceiling. The country has used considerable strategies to address the issue of gender inequality among professionals in various fields. A ruler of the UAE, H.R.H Sheikh Zayed Bin Nahyan, once stated that nothing could make him happier than women taking up a more prominent place in society. He added that, like men, women have the same right to take up essential positions depending on their abilities and qualifications (Kemp, Madsen, & El-Saidi, 2013). After his speech, in 1971, the country created a federation that gave the rights for women to assume important roles in the workforce. The UAE constitution established the rights that opened up doors to many other initiatives to empower women in society, and especially in the workforce. Although some issues associated with women in leadership remain in the country, significant achievements have been made; hence, the number of female leaders is increasing in society and workplaces.
The UAE has several case studies of initiatives to break the glass ceiling and improve the position of women in the workplace. In 2006, the Dubai Woman Establishment (DWE) emerged as a comprehensive governmental entity aimed at increasing female participation, retention, and representation in the economy and society. The DWE focused on Uncovering Barriers to Women’s Career Development (Metcalfe, 2011). The initiative is a strategic framework for the country to define the main segments’ needs for the organization to address the goal of ending gender inequality. The organization focused on the prevailing data at the time, which indicated that as of 2008, the UAE had 59 percent women in the local labor force across different professions, such as science, engineering, media, healthcare, computer technology, commerce, government, law, education, and the oil sector (Goby & Erogul, 2011). The evidence shows that the place of women in the workforce has increased over the years.
Organizational Programs to Break the Glass Ceiling
Emirati firms have an important role in addressing the glass ceiling and improving the work opportunities for women in the country. Women’s empowerment and capacity building are two critical strategies that the companies could use to attract more women in higher positions, especially in leadership (Boone et al., 2013). The process focuses on leadership skills development that takes into account gender realities in the country. Therefore, management should create programs to advance women’s empowerment and capacity building agenda. Other companies should use current models in private companies, public organizations, and academic institutions that have programs aimed at developing leadership skills among women. The programs are in different types and scales, depending on the needs of each organization. For example, private companies could use women leadership training targeted to women workers to build skills that can help them to climb up the ladder. More importantly, Boone et al. (2013) propose the need to study organizational needs before implementing such programs.
Organizations in the country have and should continue encouraging women to participate in the workplace and pursue leadership positions. Organizational enablers play a vital role in improving the place of female employees in the workplace. Private sectors have realized that women prefer working in the public sector due to flexible working settings. As a result, they engage in programs to also motivate women to work in the private sector and improve their managerial roles. Various private sector organizations use the Emiratization program to encourage the participation of women in the workplace. They use incentives such as wage restraint for government employees, wage subsidies, charges, and quotas on expatriate labor. They target women and other locals to work in the companies (Boone et al., 2013). They also focus on flexible working arrangements to enable women to seek employment and remain in the workplace long enough to climb the career ladder even to leadership positions.
Private sector companies can use incentives available in the public sector to attract and retain more women in the workplace. For example, they implement a flexible work arrangement policy to achieve the objective. Various aspects of the policy are already implemented in many companies in the UAE and are achieving positive results because the number of women working in the companies in a leadership capacity has been increasing over the years. Various models of flexible arrangements are used, including flexible time and location to improve the convenience of women working in the private sector. The time-based option varies between working in shifts, job sharing, compressed hours, part-time, staggered hours, and flexi-time. The location-related options include telecommuting or working from home (Omar, 2013). Karam and Afiouni (2013) used the example of universities that are using such arrangements to accommodate women in the workplace. Generally, they have human resource policies, which are accommodating to the needs of female Emiratis. They use models, such as long compassionate leaves, Hajj leaves, and regular breaks to enable women to balance between family and work. The models are effective in improving the place of women in the workplace and managerial positions.
It is necessary to create opportunities to improve the place of women in the workplace, especially in leadership roles in the Emirati organizations. The commitment to promoting the managerial role of the Arab female workers is achievable through open forums, advocacy initiatives, and policy actions, which should pave the way for women to participate more in the organizational settings. Organizations should follow the steps of the General Women’s Unions (GWU) to achieve the objective of allowing women to seek employment and compete for leadership roles at the same rate as men. They should also focus on women’s rights for employment under the initiative. The country should also implement laws and policies that are beneficial to women in the country. After all, significant achievements are evident since 2011. However, more effort is required at the individual, organizational, and country-levels to address the glass ceiling challenge. Critical comprehensive changes will achieve the expected positive trend in dealing with the issue in the country.
Conclusion
Overall, the UAE is one of the male-dominated cultures in the world. Such societies have disadvantaged women who have to live in the shadow of men. The authority of men hindered them from taking an active part in the workplace, especially in leadership. The challenge has led to the prevalence of the glass ceiling in the UAE. However, significant achievements have been made in recent years to improve the place of women in the workplace. More women are achieving positive strides in education and building careers in various fields. They are employed in the private and public sectors working in different departments. Their leadership roles are evident, although women are more represented in public than in the private sector. The government has implemented initiatives to address the glass ceiling, which prevents women from seeking leadership roles. They have achieved some improvement, but more work is required in the private sector. The research provides important information that organizations can use to improve the participation of women in leadership positions and roles. However, more research is necessary to create additional initiatives to increase the number of women in leadership positions.
References
Adamson, I. (). Breaking Through the Glass Ceiling? The United Arab Emirates Case. Women’s Voices in Management, pp. 162-176.
Afiouni, F. (2014). Women‟s careers in the Arab Middle East: understanding institutional constraints to the boundaryless career view. Career Development International, 19(3), 4-14.
Boone, J., Veller, T., Nikolaeva, K., Keith, M., Kefgen, K., & Houran, J. (2013). Rethinking a glass ceiling in the hospitality industry. Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, 54(3), 230-239.
Dubai Women Establishment (2011), Arab women leadership outlook, 2009–2011. Retrieved from http://dwe.gov.ae/index.aspx
Goby, V.P. & Erogul, M.S. (2011). Female entrepreneurship in the United Arab Emirates: Legislative encouragements and cultural constraints. Women’s Studies International Forum, 34(4), 329-334.
Kapur, S. (2012), Women not quite on top in GCC firms: Survey—Gulf scores low in a study on women in top slots. Emirates 24/7. Retrieved from http://www.emirates247.com/business/womennot-quite-on-top-in-gcc-firms-survey-2012-02-13-1.442779
Karam, C.M. & Afiouni, F. (2014). Localizing women’s experiences in academia: Multilevel factors at play in the Arab Middle East and North Africa. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 25(4), 500-538.
Kassem, F.S. (2012). Can women break through? women in municipalities: Lebanon in comparative perspective, Women’s Studies International Forum, 35(4), 233–255.
Kemp, L. J., Madsen, S. R., & El-Saidi, M. (2013). The current state of female leadership in the United Arab Emirates. Journal of Global Responsibility, 4(1), 99-112
Metcalfe, B.D. (2011). Women, empowerment and development in Arab Gulf States: A critical appraisal of governance, culture and national human resource development (HRD) frameworks. Human Resource Development International 14(2), 131-148.
Moore, L.L. (2012), “Worldly leadership through local knowledge: Discovering voices of Emirati women business leaders”, in Turnbull, S., Case, P., Edwards, G., Schedlitzkl, D. and Simpson, P. (Eds.), Worldly Leadership: Alternative Wisdoms for a Complex World, Palgrave Macmillan, London, pp. 171–191.
Omar, W. (2013). Emirati Women Perspectives on Work and Political Participation: Social Media Poll Analysis Report 2012. Dubai Women Establishment
Samier, E. (2015). Emirati women’s higher educational leadership formation under globalisation: Culture, religion, politics, and the dialectics of modernisation. Gender and Education, 27(3), 239-254.