Instructions:
-Answer two questions only. If you answer more than two questions, I will still only grade the first two.
-‘Assess’ means you need to evaluate the merits of the statement in question. You can agree or disagree with the statement. In either case, you need to provide evidence to support your position.
-‘Discuss’ indicates that the answer should be analytical not only descriptive.
-Answers informed by a theoretical approach are better than just descriptive ones.
-Answers should be between 2 to 3 pages (double-spaced) per question.
-You only need to cite your sources if you quote them.
The questions: (Choose two only)
1-‘Rather than preparing the country for self-rule, the Palestine Mandate and the policies of the mandatory authorities sowed the seeds of the Arab-Israeli conflict.’ Assess this statement
2- Discuss the threat presented by transnational movements and ideologies, e.g. Pan Arabism, to the inter-Arab state system.
3- How did the oil booms affect the international relations of the Middle East? Your answer should focus on their impact on regional conflicts and regional cooperation as well as on the involvement of the international superpowers in the region.
4- How did the rise of competing nationalist movements in the Ottoman Empire before and during World War I contribute to its collapse?
Solution
Question 1: The Palestine Mandate and the Arab-Israeli Conflict
The Palestine Mandate was meant to serve the interests of Palestine, but it became the genesis of a significant Palestine problem. The events occurred towards the end of the First World War. The League of Nations decided to put Palestine under Great Britain’s administration as a Mandatory Power. The system was meant to be a transitory stage until the country could achieve actual self-governance. The entity referred to as the “Mandatory Palestine” was in place for over two decades. The geopolitical consequences of the mandate are evident to-date, especially in the ongoing Arab-Israeli conflict. The Palestine Mandate was for the welfare of the nation and the region, it did not lead to the emergence of an independent nation but instead led to enduring geopolitical effects.
The term “mandatory” meant that the policies were not a necessity or generally agreeable by Palestine. Instead, a mandate led to its existence. The system also formalized the British rule over the nation to provide an organized administration of some of the territories formally held by the Ottoman Empire until the time they could rule themselves. Besides ruling the region, the mandate gave the British Government the mandate to create a Jewish national homeland. Such decisions became the genesis of conflicts in the area became it failed to consider the wishes of the people of Palestine. The League and British government also ignored the short- and long-term effect of the mandate and its policies. The new rulership ignored the requirements that “the wishes of these communities must be a principal consideration in the selection of the Mandatory” (Provence, 2015, 401). It created complex relationships in the region and the resultant conflicts, such as between the Arabs and Israel.
The British Government received the mandate in an environment that would cause a crisis. About five years before the completion of the process, the Zionist Organization has received commitments from the British Government, which include the support to build a Jewish national home in Palestine. Zionist leaders claimed a “historical connection” with Palestine because their forefathers had occupied the territory two thousand years before. Therefore, the mandate to the Zionist Organization wasa chance to create the Jewish national home. On the other hand, the people of Palestine considered the decision a violation of their natural and inalienable rights. It was also a violation of the assurance of independence that they received from the League of Nations and the British Government. As a result, Palestinian Arabs resisted the Mandate (Provence, 2015). Besides, violence broke out in the region as World War II drew closer.
Clearly, instead of achieving the promise of self-governance, the mandate became the genesis of the conflict between Arabs and Israeli. The two groups had always conflicted about the rightful owner of the land occupied by the people of Palestine. Therefore, the mandate made things worse because the British failed to protect the interests of the people of Palestine, including providing them with the promised self-rule Conversely, the Zionist Organization saw it as an opportunity to get their homeland in Palestine. The British Government did not resolve the conflict but used the mandate to create a long-term war between the Arab and Zionists.
The Rise of Nationalism and the Ottoman Empire Collapse
Since the early 16th century, the Ottoman Empire had strict control and sovereignty over the Arabian lands. During that time, the Empire ruled the region with a moderately light touch and garrisoned main trading ports. They also sustained a strong presence in the Holy cities of Medina and Mecca. However, the Ottoman Empire left the region and its tribal clans, who were mostly nomadic, to their own governing rules. Compared to rural Arab populations in Arabia, those in Syria, Mesopotamia (Iraq) Palestine, and Egypt had more permanent settlements and were controlled by the Ottoman Imperial Government. The people who inhabited the regions were highly comfortable with governance. For most of the Empire’s history, Arab (Sunni) Muslims did not experience much discrimination. They became an essential part of the Ottoman Imperial Government. Although some other factors might have led to the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the primary consideration was the rise of the Western idea of nationalism.
Nationalism played an essential role in the changes that occurred in the Empire and even led to its collapse. Nationalism is the idea that people have a collective or shared identity and destiny informed by their being members of a linguistic, ethnic, or religious group. The beliefs changed various aspects of the Ottoman Empire’s subjects and created major divisions that led to its ultimate collapse. For example, in 1912, Russia aided the formation of the Balkan League. Several subjects of the Ottoman Empire, including Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria, and Montenegro, came together to take control over the Macedonian Ottoman territory. During the same period, war was ongoing between Ottoman forces and Italy over Tripoli. The region, which is currently Libya was Muslim in North Africa. Montenegro started a war on the Empire on October 8, 1912 (Macfie, 2014). Other allies from the Balkan League later joined the war.
The rise of nationalism has significant implications on the way the Ottoman entered World War 1, its defeat and ultimate collapse. The rise of the nationalism led to the breakdown of the Ottoman millet concept. A state of nationhood was prevalent in the region, but was affected by the rise of nationalism. By the time the Empire entered the WW1, it has significant cracks and divisions. Some of Arabs were already seeking nationalist movements and some regions had formed secret societies. Nationalism contributed to feelings of being united along other lines, such as religion, which affected their affiliation to the Ottoman Empire. Long before the entry into the WW1, the defiant groups, formed along with the nationalist ideas, were preaching the same message across the Arab population (Macfie, 2014). Without the united front, the Ottoman Empire could not stand the changes that were happening around the time, including the impact of the WWI.
The Ottoman Empire was once united along an idea of statehood. However, the rise of the Western Nationalism became the leading factor in its ultimate collapse. The Empire could not survive the divisions that were caused by the growth of the Western nationalism. The entry of the Empire into the WW1 amid the internal cracks led to the ultimate revolt. The Empire allied with Germany to enter the war, but its defeat and the Allied powers’ occupation of a part of its territory weakened it ultimately. Divisions in the Empire, the loss some territorial control, and revolutions among its constituents led to its ultimate fall.
References
Macfie, A. L. (2014). The end of the Ottoman Empire, 1908-1923. Routledge.
Provence, M. (2015). Stateless Revolutionaries and the Aftermath of the Ottoman Great War. Journal of Modern European History, 13(3), 401-418. https://doi.org/10.17104/1611-8944-2015-3-401
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