Introduction
The Jews desired for the things to change for the better following the burden of the Roman rule. They were not satisfied with the government of Romans in Judaea. It was the dissatisfaction that led to the Second Jewish Revolt, which took place between 132 and 135 AD. The era, prior to the rebellion, was characterized by serious conflicts between the Jews and the Romans. The Bar Kochba Revolt has been viewed as a heroic act by the leader and the Jews who lived at the time. At the same time, there are some who view it as a recklessness of religious and nationalist fanaticism.[1] No matter the view of the event that was applied, it was, without doubt, a defining moment in the history of the Jews. It is a time that has never been forgotten by the Jews, and in fact, celebrated to-date. From a historical perceptive, it is important to understand the genesis, outcome, and aftermath of the revolt.
Background of the Revolt
The Bar Kokhba Revolt was not the first revolt by the Jews against the Roman Rule. The First Jewish-Roman War, which took place in 70 CE had come and gone. A period of relative calm followed the devastation of the first revolt. However, the calm would not last, because the silence did not mean that the Jews were satisfied with the Roman government’s actions. Issues were brewing from within and without the Land of Israel during the independent Hillelite patriarchs and the tannaitic academies’ rule. In the aftermath of the initial rebellion, the Roman government was careful to prevent further opposition in Judea. As a result, there were careful measures assumed including installation of a praetor as a governor in the place of a procurator. It was critical for the Romans that there was strong governance such that the Jews were not able to rise against it.[2] However, this did not prevent the tension that characterized the relationship between the Jews and the Romans in the region.
Factors Behind the Revolt
The problems existed despite the measures, including the severance of Judea from the province of Syria. The move did not make things any better, and in fact, it was worse when the Roman government situated itself squarely in the region. Senatorial rank’s higher‑level Roman governors were given the role of ruling over the region. In the wake of the Kitos War, there was ongoing trouble that would become worse as days went by. During 115-117, the Eastern Mediterranean experienced the second large-scale Jewish revolution. Indeed, it was the event that instigated the revolution that would later take place in Judea. At the same time, the government that was ruling the region had strong anti-Jew sentiments.[3] The government made decisions that were not in the interest of the Jews, including the imposition of the capitation tax. In this case, the taxes would be paid to the Rome-based Temple of Jupiter. Such were the things that increased the discontentedness of the Jews, and potentially led to the revolt to oppose the actions.
During early second century, the Roman governance was largely mismanaged, another possible factor that led to the revolution. During the 120s, Gargilius Antiques might have heralded Rufus. Some literature has indicated that it was the government of Tinnius Rufus that played the greatest role in the event that led to the rebellion. Rufus’ misrule as the governor of Judaea motivated the actions of the Jews to rebel. Another important factor that might have instigated the event was the intentions of Emperor Hadrian.[4] In 118 C.E., the Roman Empire saw the rise of a new emperor to power, Hadrian. In the beginning, the new Emperor appeared to be sympathetic to the Jews. He even went ahead to authorize their return to Jerusalem as well as the building again of the Holy Temple. The events led to high expectations on the part of the Jews that things were finally working out for them. They embarked on the planning and seeking resources to build the temple once again.[5] However, their expectations were immediately dashed to the ground when the emperor went back on his promise.
When Hadrian had visited Judaea in 130, he gave orders that the new city would be built in the place where the town was burnt down by Titus. This was Jerusalem, the Holy City according to the Jews. In fact, this was the same place that the emperor had indicated that the Jews would rebuild their Holy Temple. Instead, the new orders were for a Roman temple which would be built in the Roman city and used in the worship of Jupiter, the Roman supreme god. A majority of the Jews were not supportive of the decision to serve a foreign god in the Holy City and the place where the temple for the worship of their God was meant to take place. However, there were others who were not opposed to the decision to worship Jupiter in the city. The supporters did not see any need to hinder the worship of god, regardless of the nature.[6] The moderate perspective won the debate, citing the word of God that “the house of God was to be a house of all nations.”
At the same time, the governance of Roman in the region was accompanied by major ramifications for the Jews, beginning with the deportation of the Jews to North Africa. The Roman colony, newly founded in Jerusalem was not in the interests of the Jews, who were restricted from practicing their religion and other cultural practices, including circumcision of their males. The emperor went ahead to come up with the laws that would bring an end to the practices that were very important to the Jews.[7] The Romans were offended by the practice for a long time and saw a major opportunity to bring it to an end. However, there is controversy surrounding the new law. Some scholars have argued that the ban involved the boys who were not of the right age to consent to the practice. Nonetheless, despite the actual dictates of the new laws, it was offensive to the Jews as it went against their beliefs and values.
Unlike the decision to build the temple for the worship of the foreign god, this new directive against the strongly held practices received support from even fewer moderates and radicals. Evidently, a time had come for the voice of the Jews to rise against the actions of the Roman government. It was at this stage that the Jews felt that they could not take any more from the Roman government and started the revolution.[8] The Jews are argued to have started the war when the Roman Rule prohibited them from freely practicing their religion and other beliefs that had been passed from one generation to the nest. The revolt that erupted was led by Bar Kokhba, explaining the genesis of its name. It is suggested that the revolt was even worse than the rebellions that had taken place in the past. The revolt is also argued to have been more expansive than the one that had taken place before it.
The First Stage of the Revolt
Literature on the early stages of the revolt is limited. However, it is argued that the storm started to form when the initial preparations to build the Roman city at the site of the ruins of Jerusalem commenced. The period is posited to be the initial months of 132. In the course of the preparations, the disturbing of the land potentially led to the collapse of the tomb of Solomon. The Jews considered the event a Messianic omen. At the same time, the Roman government led by Rufus did not give the situation the seriousness it warranted, at least in the eyes of the Jews. During this period, there were all indications that the Jews were discontented by the actions of the Roman government and that they were preparing to rebel against it. Rabbi Joshua ben Hananiah played an important role in trying to bring calm upon the Jews who were well prepared to rebel.[9] However, the success of his efforts did not last as the Jews continued to prepare for the rebellion, though secretly.
The leaders on the part of the Jews were making all plans necessary to prevent the same issues that had plagued and brought to failure the rebellion before the Bar Kokhba Revolt. The revolt started with clandestine preparations as they made sure that they were ready in the event that a rebellion would be the solution to their problems. In the caves, they constructed hideouts and worked on weapons that were poor such that they would be rejected by the Romans and returned back to them.[10] They were also coming up with guerrilla forces that were responsible for the surprise attacks that the Romans had to experience. The Bar Kokhba-led revolt was spreading very fast across the country from Modi’in. Bar Kokhba’s rebels were responsible for major casualties that were experienced in the region where Jerusalem was. At the same time, the Roman government had started to respond by sending troops to areas where the Jews were perpetrating the attacks.
The Second Stage of the Revolt
Because of the retaliatory attacks by the Romans, things were not looking out for the Jews. Life started to become worse for the Jews as Hadrian started to bring an additional army. The Jews had to contend with the attacks from the “Sixth Ferrata,” which was brought to Judea in the efforts to quench the rebellion.[11] However, it was proving impossible for Legio X and Legio XI to succeed against the Jewish guerilla forces. This led to the bringing in of more forces from the provinces that were neighboring Judea. The Roman forces that came in to fight the rebels were growing very fast, although they were still ineffective in fighting against the rebels. The Jews had a huge advantage against the Roman forces, among them the familiarity with the environment and the fact that they had armed themselves in preparation for the revolt. There was a large number of Jews who supported the course and were prepared to join Bar Kokhba’s forces in the fight against the Romans.[12] All evidence pointed to the fact that things were heated up at this point, as the hostility of the Jews against the Romans had reached the peak.
The Jews were succeeding in the initial stage of the warfare because of the clandestine nature of their engagement. The Romans were taken by surprise as the rebels were also using a blend of tactics in fighting against the adversary. Use of the guerrilla was responsible for the most of the casualties that characterized the initial stage of the revolt. The Jews were motivated to take part in the revolt and use their might because they viewed the revolt from a religious point of view. They were convinced that they were fighting in the apocalyptic war, which was in the predictions of the prophets such as Daniel and Zechariah.[13] Many of the Jews were prepared to enter in the hideouts in order to effectively fight against the adversary. As the numbers of the Jews forces increased and the leader felt that he had a greater might than the Roman army, he chose to begin a direct engagement. At this point, the Jews forces were defeating the Romans. At this point, there was a need to change their tactics. However, the Jews were also engaged in stronger defense against the Roman army.
Using the caves that were used as the hideouts for the Guerrilla forces, the Judean towns and villages were fortified. Because of the nature of their warfare, the Romans could not effectively participate in the direct engagement and hope to succeed. They changed the tactic to attack the individual towns and villages. The Jews had created the hideouts so secretly and narrowly such that it was only the Jews who understood them. The Romans did not have the necessary experience to uncover these hideouts. Some of the hideouts were also created in such a way that they were under the houses and interconnected for possible hideouts for the Jewish families in case it was necessary. The Jews revered the leader, some of the religious leaders going as far as to mention that he was the ‘Messiah.’[14] He had loyal followers who played an important role in the victory that the Jewish side was experiencing during the second phase of the warfare.[15] Although his actual name was not Bar Kochba, but Simon ben Kosiba, it was the name of choice by his followers. Indeed, this was translated to the “son of the star,” which was another affirmation of the claims that he could be the Messiah. It was even claimed that he was responsible for some miracles.
The Third Stage of the Revolt
The war was becoming more intense as time went by and the Roman government continued the efforts to counter the opposition and attacks by the Jewish rebels. It was agreed that the Roman side had faced major impediments in the war against the rebels. The response by the emperor was to continue increasing the size of the army. The Roman army witnessed an increase of the legions. Indeed, the increase of the forces was towards the end of expanding the campaign to be more effective in countering the resistance by the Jews. The response against the Jews was getting harsher, Rufus showing the rebels no mercy. With the reinforcements that the government was providing, the Jewish army was no match.[16] The Roman government was using an army much greater, in size and resources, than the one used to counter the first revolt. At the time, about a third of the army of the Roman Empire was being used in countering the efforts of the rebels.
The Roman army was not showing any mercy to the rebels and approached them with as much force as it was possible to defeat them in the war. The two sides were taking part in a full-blown warfare, which meant that either of them would use any resources available to win against the adversary. The Roman army was coming on the Jews with so much force that led to the destruction of thousands of the Jews, men, women, and even children. It can be deduced from the literature on the warfare that it was extensive, extensively resourced, and fanatical. Tel Shalem in the Beit She’an valley has been suggested as one of the areas where the major part of the war took place. It was one of the areas where some of the legions operated from.[17] The possibility of the war, having been concentrated in this region has been revealed in the fact that some resources of the war have been found there, including a triumphal arch.
During this phase of the war, there were major efforts to extend the battle to all the areas that were covered by the rebels to ensure that they were all subdued and enslaved. The rebellion had occupied a very large area, evidenced in the possibility of the war, having been fought in Tel Shalem. There is, however, a controversy surrounding the actual extent of the rebellion. There are some historians who suggested that the rebellion was only experienced in the province of Judea. However, there are others who have suggested that other regions such as Tel Shalem experienced a great deal of the rebellion and that the war was fought there as well. It is also possible that the efforts also extended to the northern Jordan Valley. The Judean highlands and desert also played an important role in the rebellion as the regions where the war was fought, especially as it escalated.[18] There are some accounts that mention the declaration of Herodium as the secondary headquarters of Simon bar Kokhba.
Use of archeological materials has been used as the justification of the claims that the region was an important part of the rebellion and the war. The evidence is argued to have been evident in the entire region, indicating that it was an important site of the most critical stage of the rebellion. The region has revealed the indicators of the fortifications that the rebels had constructed to hide from the Romans and perform the concerted attacks. The information that has been unearthed dates back to the time of the revolt, including the items that were used by the rebels while hiding in the caves.[19] The time of the peak of the war is placed somewhere between late 134 and early 135. The time is also argued to be when the Roman army besieged the fortress and took over the places that the Jews had assumed as their strongholds. The Roman army appears to have been able to subdue the rebels and took over some of their most important regions.
The Fourth Stage of the Revolt
By the fourth phase of the confrontation, it was becoming clear that the rebels were being defeated even though they had started strong. It was becoming evident that the Bar Kokhba-led army was losing control over most of the territories that the rebels had initially taken control over. Besides the Betar fortress, the Roman army was succeeding in taking over other regions, leaving the Jews defenseless. The army had gained major grounds in clearing the fortress and the hideouts that were created by the rebels at the onset of the revolt. Given that the Betar fortress was the only one remaining, it was the most logical place for the remaining Jews to take refuge.[20] However, the hiding place was all for a while because the Roman army could not rest until all the hideouts were turned upside down and those still hiding in there flashed out. In 135, as the war was possibly coming to an end, the last fortress was also attacked by the Roman army and destroyed. The destruction of the fortress was accompanied by a great deal of bloodshed.
The Reality of the Jewish Side
The leader of the Jewish rebels is believed to have been one very strong person. The evidence is revealed in the fact that Emperor Hadrian had to be cautious in dealing with this leader. It is claimed that he was such a strong leader that the emperor was forced to send his most effective generals in the efforts to put off the rebellion. The governor of Britain, Julius Severus, was among the generals that were dispatched to act towards this end. His novel command was basically a demotion given the reality that Britain was a highly high-status province. Also, the move indicated the seriousness of the situation and the care that it has to be approached with. The governors of Syria and Arabia, Publicius Marcellus end Haterius Nepos, were other generals that were dispatched.[21] An ineffective strategy would not have been effective in stopping the rebellion, which was carefully planned from the beginning.
The move by the Roman government did not come as a surprise to the leader of the rebels. He knew that the emperor would counter him with more targeted strategies and tactics, including the increase in the number of forces and generals. As a result, he was well prepared for the huge expeditionary force that the emperor sent. For the rebels, it was highly risky to confront the Roman army directly. They knew that they would not match up to the numbers or the military resources that the army had. It was for this reason that the rebels positioned themselves in the places of advantage which were fortified with the use of walls and mines. When such time came when they were completely subdued, and communications become impossible, they knew that there were places where they could take refuge.[22] They only had to make openings such that they had the necessary light and air. However, it emerged that the fortresses would not offer the refuge forever, and that a time would come when they would be subdued by the Roman army.
The effectiveness in planning the revolt was borne out of the tremendous capability of Bar Kochba to bring people together to support the common course.[23] The leader emerged as an individual of incredible leadership capabilities. It was possible, using his capabilities to unite the people and make them see the reason for the rebellion.[24] The accounts written by the Jewish scholars argued that he was a man of incredible physical strength, which came in handy during the revolt. Though he turned not being the Messiah, he played an important role in the making of the rebellious history of the Jews.[25] He has been shown to have had Messianic potential, this being the reason for his recognition by Rabbi Akiva. Uniting the Jews created a very strong force that shook the mighty Roman army. They fought the Roman Empire, with considerable success, explained by the reality that they were able to mint their own coin and declare their independence. Though they were defeated in the end, they actually fought an effective battle under the leadership of Bar Kochba. The Roman rule could not allow the boldness of the Jew to persist. The leaders knew that something had to be done to stop the rebellion.
The Roman Reality
Tineius Rufus was succeeded by Julius Severus as the governor of Judea, which was the place where the war was at the peak. There was a large army that he was expected to command. The war, at the time, witnessed deployment of three legions, VI Ferrata, X Fretensis, and XXII Deiotariana. In this case, X Fretensis was speedily strengthened using marines from Italy. There is no indication that Legion XXII existed after the war, potentially proving that it was annihilated by the Jewish rebels. As the war went on, the Roman government was forced to send out more reinforcements. Another legion that was added to the revolt was II Traiana Fortis. It became evident that all the legions took part in the war, an indication of the magnitude of the challenge for the Roman forces. The time resulted in the Roma suffering from a great deal of workforce shortage, for the first time in decades.[26] The reality led to some people questioning the effectiveness of the Roman side in fighting the war. During the initial stages of the conflict, the Roman army appears largely ill-prepared leading to the loss of some of them before they were added more workforce.
Just like the Jews, the Roman army went through major challenges in fighting the war, especially at the beginning. To begin with, the army was ill-prepared because of the clandestine nature of the planning for the war by the Jews and the surprise attack. Subduing Judaea was not an easy task for the Romans because the Jews were attacking from the hideouts and they would immediately retreat back. It is argued that actual progress was made during the time when the emperor himself came to the war region to understand the situation and possibly change the tactics. For the Roman forces, the usual was full-scale battles. However, the sort of engagement was evaded by Bar Kokhba.[27] The small cohorts of rebels could only be incepted by similar cohorts of the Roman armies, which is the strategy that Hadrian’s generals had to assume. The war was characterized by the under-officers taking up the active roles while the highest ranking officers did not have anything to do. As opposed to swords and lances used in conventional war efforts, the revolt used famine, disease, and fire as the effective weapons. The war was unconventional, hence could not be effectively fought using conventional means.
The Aftermath
As the revolt was starting, there were all indications that the Bar Kokhba-led army had considerable strength that it was actually succeeding in fighting the Roman army. The use of the surprise attacks played effective in fighting the Roman side of the war, but this was to take a short time as the Roman side kept reorganizing and adding on the human and other resources that were necessary to win the war. As the war continued, the rebels could no longer succeed against the methodical and brutal tactics that were used by the Roman army. There was evidence that the Roman government was prepared to spare nothing. They were only focused to win against the rebel and conquer all the areas where they had taken refuge.[28] Jerusalem had fallen and as the war was coming to an end, so was the Bethar fortress which meant that there was no more hiding place for the rebels.
The end of the war came in the wake of the destruction of the fortress and the killing of the leader of the rebels. It was the Bethar fortress that Bar Kokhba was slain. His death came in the wake of the final crushing of the rebellion, whose end came in 135. It has been argued that following the defeat and the end of the rebellion, it was forbidden for any Jew to enter the Holy City, Jerusalem.[29] However, what actually happened to Jerusalem as the aftermath of the war has remained a debatable question. It is possible that they did not manage to take Jerusalem. However, the possible explanation of the argument is the evidence of the existence of the rebel coins all over, apart from the capital. Again, there is supposed prove that there was election of another high priest who was able to lead the Jews, suggesting that they continued their rule over the area where the Temple had been at least for a while longer after the revolt. Nonetheless, it is important to note that the evidence is inconclusive.
The Roman army was not fast in attacking the rebels because of the challenges that would face such a move. The Roman army had the benefit of numbers and fanaticism, but it would not have worked if they directly attacked the rebels. Due to the numbers of the soldiers together with under-officers, things were better for the Roman army. In this case, the Roman army did not have to do a lot of fighting. Instead, they effectively reached their objective by shutting them in their hideouts and denying them the chance to go out in search of food. Although the tactic would be slow in reaching the objective, it involved minimal comparative risk in crushing, exhausting, and exterminating the rebels. It has been claimed that the remnants of the Jews were extremely few. The Roman army razed down many of the houses belonging to Jews, and many were killed in the period leading to the end of the revolt.[30] While many died as a result of the direct effect of the war, others died due to starvation or diseases.
Conclusion
The Jews have a long history, and one of the defining characteristics of their history is the long period of wars against various adversaries. The Jews were emerging from the period of the first revolt against the Roman government, and relative calm was returning. However, when things were looking better and a promise was made by the emperor to rebuild the temple, things collapsed once more. The Holy Temple stood in ruins, and the Roman government suggested the building a Roman City with a temple that would be used for the worship of god Jupiter, considered a foreign god by the Jews. Additionally, there was a law that was meant to prohibit male circumcision, a practice held by the Jews for generations. These are the factors that led to the concerted planning of the revolt. The Jews, during the early stages of the revolt, were successful because of the use of the guerilla and surprise tactics against the adversary. However, the success did not last as the Roman forces used the tactics against them, killing and starving them as they hid in the fortresses that they had created. While the effects of the war are never conclusive, there is evidence that the Jew died in thousands.
Bibliography
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Porat, Roi, Hanan Eshel, and Amos Frumkin. 2007. “Finds from the Bar Kokhba Revolt from Two Caves at En Gedi.” Palestine Exploration Quarterly 139, no. 1: 35-53. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost (accessed November 10, 2017).
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