For your Behavioral Neuroscience Research Paper you will investigate and report on a biologically based psychological disorder of your choice. Your paper should be 6-8 pages in length and contain a minimum of 5 scholarly
sources.
You final paper should cover the following areas:
Description of disorder
Symptoms
Etiology:
Biological
Environmental
Discussion of the relationship between biology and environmental factors in the development of this disorder
Diagnostic criteria
Biological based treatment(s)
Other treatments
Short and long term prognosis
The following is a list of disorders you may choose from – or suggest your own with approval from your instructor:
CHOSEN DISORDER: **Schizophrenia**
Final Behavioral Neuroscience Research Paper
The past few decades have seen a significant surge in the rate of neuropsychiatric disorders and their associated risks and disabilities in the globe. As noted by World Health Organization (WHO), about 450 million people globally suffer from such conditions, and one in four people is likely to be affected by the neurological disorder (“The world health report”, 2001). Schizophrenia is among such mental disorders that affect individuals’ normal functioning and imposes an economic and social burden on their families. The adversities of schizophrenia can be far-reaching; thus, this research explores the etiology, symptoms, diagnostic criteria, biological and short- and long-term prognosis, and biological and environmental factors related to the disorder to equip academicians with adequate knowledge of the disorder, its development, and interventions.
Description of Disorder
Schizophrenia is a neuropsychiatric disorder that affects a person’s quality of life. Patel et al. (2014) describe the condition as a “complex, chronic mental disorder characterized by an array of symptoms, including delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech or behavior, and impaired cognitive ability” (p.638). The authors note that the condition disrupts a patient’s thoughts and affect, interfering with the individual’s ability to engage in social events and foster meaningful relationships (Patel et al., 2014). Lloyd et al. (2017) also add that the disorder is highly heterogeneous with variable treatment outcomes and very little known about what is important to patients. In essence, schizophrenia is a mental disorder that impairs a person’s psychological, behavioral, and cognitive functioning, leading to poor quality of life among patients.
Symptoms
Schizophrenia involves an array of cognitive, behavioral, and emotional symptoms that may vary from one patient to another. The literature suggests that these symptoms are categorized into three: positive, negative, and cognitive (Patel et al., 2014). According to the National Institute of Mental Health Schizophrenia, positive symptoms are more identifiable because they are absent in healthy people (Patel et al., 2014). These symptoms may include delusions, abnormal motor behavior, and hallucinations (Patel et al., 2014). While these symptoms may be common among schizophrenia patients, they may vary in severity and depending on the patient’s age.
Studies also show that negative symptoms are prevalent among schizophrenia patients. As the name suggests, negative signs are less visible; thus, clinicians and other people may not quickly diagnose them. These symptoms include diminished emotional expression, alogia, anhedonia, and decreased goal-directed behavior (Patel et al., 2014). Despite their reduced visibility among patients, negative symptoms significantly impact patients’ cognition and behavior.
The third category of schizophrenia signs is cognitive symptoms, which are more complicated to detect than negative symptoms. Scholars argue that these symptoms are nonspecific, and they require a high degree of severity to be easily detected (Patel et al., 2014). The commonly cited symptoms are impairments of working memory, execution functions, verbal fluency, attention, and disturbances in selecting and processing information (Mosiolek et al., 2016). As can be seen, the cognitive symptoms mainly relate to brain functions; thus, they may affect the manner in which the patient’s social and behavioral dimensions interrelate.
Etiology
Despite researchers studying schizophrenia for decades, they are yet to determine the specific cause of the disorder. However, a growing body of literature suggests that the condition is multifactorial. Notably, it stems from multiple factors, including environmental, genetic, and brain elements.
Biological Factors
A growing body of research suggests that schizophrenia is triggered by biological factors such as brain dysfunctions. This dysfunction is closely linked to the brain’s neurons, such as dopamine. As noted in a prior seminal study, there exist potential links between schizophrenia and dopamine and immune dysregulation (Henriksen et al., 2017). Notably, an overactive dopaminergic system enhances the manifestation of schizophrenia symptoms. This biological correlation may explain why the intake of antipsychotic drugs reduces schizophrenia symptoms. Arguably, the drugs lessen the brain’s dopamine release, leading to a reduction in the disorder’s symptoms.
Other biological factors, such as abnormal early or late brain development, are also hypothesized to cause schizophrenia. According to Weinberger, Murray, and Lewis, early brain insults affect prenatal brain development and resultant pathophysiological mechanisms, leading to dysfunction of the mature brain and predisposition to the mental disorder (cited by Gogtay et al., 2011). A similar notion is held about late brain development, which interferes with a person’s cognition, increasing their predisposition to schizophrenia.
Environmental Factors
Studies also reveal that environmental factors such as exposure to stressful events, prenatal factors like a viral infection on the mother, and exposure to drugs such as marijuana increase the risk of developing the disorder among the genetically vulnerable (Pratt et al., 2013). Arguably, when a child inherits schizophrenia genes and is subsequently exposed to traumatic events, isolation, or discrimination, their chances of vulnerability to the disorder increase significantly. An individual’s exposure to toxins, notably psychoactive drugs such as marijuana, also influences psychotic symptoms related to schizophrenia, such as hallucinations and delusions.
Relationship Between Biology and Environmental Factors in the Development of Schizophrenia
As noted, schizophrenia is a multifactorial condition because an array of dependent factors causes it. Studies further show that the disorder’s etiology involves an interaction between the biological and environmental factors (Pratt et al., 2013). For example, the exposure of an individual with the condition’s genetic vulnerability to environmental factors such as isolation and toxins like marijuana increases their likelihood of developing the disorder. This information suggests that a specific factor may not cause schizophrenia. Instead, it stems from an interaction between multiple etiological elements such as the environment, genetics, and the human brain.
Diagnostic Criteria of Schizophrenia
The comprehensive diagnostic criteria is used to guide the care that clinicians offer to schizophrenia patients. According to the current research, the disorder’s diagnostic criteria include persistence of two or more active-phase symptoms such as delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior, and negative symptoms, each lasting for at least one-month (Patel et al., 2014). However, the American Psychiatric Association also adds for one to qualify for a diagnosis, they must portray one of the three primary symptoms, hallucinations, delusions, or disorganized speech (cited by Patel et al., 2014). Furthermore, the duration of the persistence of the symptoms is also considered in the diagnosis criterion. Notably, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) states that a patient must exhibit decreased performance levels in work, interpersonal and self-care, and portray the active-phase symptoms for at least six months to be diagnosed with the disorder (Patel et al., 2014). The three-criterion set by DSM-5 helps ensure that clinicians examine patients carefully and avoid mistaking the diagnosis of schizophrenia for other conditions that have similar symptoms such as obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD).
Biological Based Treatments
Biological-based treatments are often the first-line treatment before other rehabilitation programs are introduced to improve a patient’s social, behavioral, and cognitive functioning. According to the existing clinical knowledge, second-generation antipsychotics (SGAs) or neuroleptics, except clozapine, are the choice for first-line treatment of the disorder (Patel et al., 2014). These biological treatments are mainly recommended because of their substantial chemical interaction with dopamine and serotonin, thus easing the disorder’s most dominant symptoms. Furthermore, SGAs are prescribed in titrated doses because they have minimum risks of life-threatening conditions such as agranulocytosis.
Other Treatments
Besides biological treatments, non-pharmacological treatments are also highly recommended for the disorder. According to literature, among the non-pharmacological treatments that have shown repeated efficacy in the condition are cognitive therapy and family psychoeducation (Magliano et al., 2016). On the one hand, cognitive therapy aims to reduce distress experienced by People with Schizophrenia (PWS) and improve their quality of life (Magliano et al., 2016). While this form of treatment may not necessarily eliminate the disorder, it helps lessen the patient’s distress by assisting them in achieving positive behavior. Cognitive therapy may include indulging in open conversations with the psychologists to help ease feelings of anxiety. On the other hand, family psychoeducation aims to enlighten PWS and their families about the condition and improve their communication and problem-solving skills (Magliano et al., 2016). Prior research has proven the efficacy of this treatment option, making it viable for use among psychologists.
Short- and Long-Term Prognosis
Clinical information shows that schizophrenia is a lifelong disorder, implying that it persists till death. However, a considerable body of studies suggests that the condition can improve with time. The short-term prognosis of the disorder remains insignificant. However, prior studies reveal significant clinical remissions rates- 43.5% and 54.5%- among schizophrenic and schizoaffective patients, respectively, in the long term (Pinna et al., 2014). This information suggests that PWS can improve to the point of fitting in community, despite schizophrenia being a lifelong condition.
References
“The world health report 2001: Mental disorders affect one in four people” (2001, September 28). World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/news/item/28-09-2001-the-world-health-report-2001-mental-disorders-affect-one-in-four-people
Gogtay, N., Vyas, N.S., Testa, R., Wood, S.J., & Pantelis, C. (2011). Age of onset of schizophrenia: Perspectives from structural neuroimaging studies. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 37(3), 504-513. https://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Fschbul%2Fsbr030
Henriksen, M.G., Nordgaard, J., & Jansson, L. (2017). Genetics of schizophrenia: Overview of methods, findings and limitations. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 11(322), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2017.00322
Lloyd, J., Lloyd, H., Fitzpatrick, R., & Peters, M. (2017). Treatment outcomes in schizophrenia: Qualitative study of the views of family carers. BMC Psychiatry, 17(266), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-017-1418-8
Magliano, L., Read, J., Rinaldi, A., Costanzo, R., Leo, R.D., Schioppa, G., & Petrillo, M. (2016). The influence of causal explanations and diagnostic labeling on psychology students’ beliefs about treatments, prognosis, dangerousness and unpredictability in schizophrenia. Community Mental Health Journal, 52(2016), 361-369. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10597-015-9901-5
Mosiolek, A., Gierus, J., Koweszko, T., & Szulc, A. (2016). Cognitive impairment in schizophrenia across age groups: A case-control study. BMC Psychiatry, 16(37), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-016-0749-1
Patel, K.R., Cherian, J., Gohil, K., & Atkinson, D. (2014). Schizophrenia: Overview and treatment options. Pharmacy and Therapeutics, 39(9), 638-645. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25210417
Pinna, F., Sanna, L., Perra, V., Randaccio, P., Diana, E., … & Cagliari Recovery Study Group. (2014). Long-term outcome of schizoaffective disorder. Are there any differences with respect to schizophrenia? Riv Psichiatr, 49(1), 41-49. https://doi.org/10.1708/1407.15624
Pratt, C.W., Gill, K.J., & Roberts, M.M. (2014). Psychiatric rehabilitation (3rd ed.). Academic Press. ISBN:978-0-12-387002-5
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